The History of Retail in 101 Objects

History of Retail in 101 Objects – Object 12: Algorithm

9 November 2026
Algorithm · The History of Retail in 101 Objects

2000 BC to 1600

The 9th century Persian astronomer and mathematician Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi was responsible for the creation of the term “algorithm”, although not during his lifetime. When one of his books was translated into Latin in the 12th century, his name was translated as “Algorithmi”.

Al-Khwarizmi worked as a member of the House of Wisdom in Baghdad, in what we would call today a scientific research and teaching center. While his work on quadratic equations and in astronomy had far-reaching effects, and algorithms were used in mathematics long before the first computer flickered into life, algorithms as we now understand them actually came much later, and their use has tracked the growth in computing.

Algorithms are at the heart of computer programming, and their ability to solve problems and enhance business efficiency has been greatly enhanced by the power and speed at which computers can now process data.

Today, algorithms have many applications, from the latest developments in computer science and Artificial Intelligence, to molecular biology and discerning consumer behavior patterns.

In business, algorithms have delivered the ability not just to process data faster, but also to model scenarios and optimize processes in order to make substantial efficiency gains. In logistics, for instance, algorithms that can work out the most efficient way to complete a delivery route can save a business not just minutes and hours, but days of work (and the associated fuel costs) each month.

In retailing, algorithms play a role in predicting demand and optimizing orders and distribution to stores according to real-world factors such as weather, historic purchase data, and the demographics of people living close to a particular store. They can even take into account holiday patterns and whether the local football team has won this week.

Analysts can now use algorithms to make sense of all sorts of big data in the form of text, numbers, picture images, video and audio. By making sense of the data they have generated in this way, researchers and managers can improve their decision making within their respective organizations.

Algorithms have gone from being a helpful assistant to retailers, to being at the very heart of business success. They underpin developments in Artificial Intelligence that are driving smart business decision-making at every level, from recruitment and store site selection, to inventory optimization, pricing and marketing.

Contribution to Retail History

Technology is giving retailers the opportunity to better understand customer data, thereby helping to develop more appropriate and actionable strategies in products, merchandising and inventory as well as to, ultimately, drive sales.

See where this object sits in the sweep of retail history →

About the series. The History of Retail in 101 Objects is compiled and edited by David Roth, CEO of The Store WPP and Chairman of WPP BAV. It tells the story of retail through the objects that shaped it, from the cave to the connected store, organised across the historical periods in which each innovation made its mark. As David puts it, the history of retail is the history of mankind, and of retail’s vast contribution to society. A new object appears here every Monday.

This is the fourth edition, the World Retail Hall of Fame edition. The book, and every object published so far →

History of Retail in 101 Objects – Object 11: Mirror

2 November 2026
Mirror · The History of Retail in 101 Objects

77 AD

Reflections of our own image had a magical significance in ancient cultures. In early times glass polished stones or metal were used. The Romans coated flat glass with silver or gold foil.

Justus von Liebig discovered the chemical process of coating a glass surface with metallic silver in 1835. Today, mirrors are still made by coating a thin layer of molten aluminum or silver onto the back of a plate glass in a vacuum. However, mirrors and their capabilities are still evolving.

During the Renaissance, Nuremberg and Venice became centers of excellence for mirror production but by the middle of the 17th century mirror making was practised extensively in London and Paris. The Royal Palace of Versailles had incredible mirrors in the staterooms, which created a sensation at the time.

The mirror is a reflection of personalization and how important this strategy has been throughout civilizations. Whether an Ancient Egyptian buyer was looking at a reflection in polished bronze or today’s shopper is looking at a digital mirror that allows color and patterns to change at a click, the mirror teases the ego and influences almost every purchase decision.

Contribution to Retail History

Craftsmen such as Grinling Gibbons in the late 17th and early 18th centuries produced elaborately carved mirror frames, and Scottish brothers Robert and James Adam created ceiling-high fireplace units that used mirrors to create a special ambience.

As the 19th century progressed, mirror making became cheaper and mirrors were put into wardrobes, sideboards, and clothing retailers began installing them in and around store interiors and in changing and fitting rooms. Three-way mirrors were also introduced to help customers see themselves from different angles when trying on clothes.

Today, mirrors are taking on new dimensions as digital technology begins to extend their capabilities for retail use. For example, interactive mirrors in stores incorporate a camera which captures the customer’s body dimensions and stance. Using hand gestures, the customer ‘swipes’ different outfits from a display menu and the mirror shows their reflection with the selected garment superimposed over their on-screen image. The digital delay mirror records the customer’s reflection and outputs it on a two second delay, enabling them to see what they look like from the back.

See where this object sits in the sweep of retail history →

About the series. The History of Retail in 101 Objects is compiled and edited by David Roth, CEO of The Store WPP and Chairman of WPP BAV. It tells the story of retail through the objects that shaped it, from the cave to the connected store, organised across the historical periods in which each innovation made its mark. As David puts it, the history of retail is the history of mankind, and of retail’s vast contribution to society. A new object appears here every Monday.

This is the fourth edition, the World Retail Hall of Fame edition. The book, and every object published so far →

History of Retail in 101 Objects – Object 10: Greek Agora

26 October 2026
Greek Agora · The History of Retail in 101 Objects

600 BC

By about 600 BC all cities in Ancient Greece would have had an agora near their center.

A market place as well as a meeting place, the agora was usually a rectangular space surrounded by buildings and frequented by politicians, traders, aristocrats, scientists and slaves. Along one edge was the 'stoa', a long covered walkway with shops located in it, where more expensive items could be purchased than those found on the traders' stalls.

Farmers brought their produce to the agora and set up stalls selling meat, fish, fruits, vegetables, cheeses, eggs, honey, and wine. Cattle and grain were also traded, as were more exotic items such as gems, silks, wool, and, of course, slaves. A hive of activity, craftsmen would ply their trade and moneychangers and bankers would carry out their business. 'Shopping' at the agora was conducted by men and their household slaves, not by women.

The agora was also a focus for cultural and community activity. Political debate, theater, and musical performances would draw citizens in as they fraternized with friends and business associates. It also served as a labor exchange as employers mixed with men looking for work. Although it was a predominantly male environment, women were allowed to use the agora's public fountains to collect water.

Contribution to Retail History

Defined as the open place of assembly, the agora was the precursor to the town center and exemplified the social behavior and importance of how societies have always come together for entertainment and commercial activity.

See where this object sits in the sweep of retail history →

About the series. The History of Retail in 101 Objects is compiled and edited by David Roth, CEO of The Store WPP and Chairman of WPP BAV. It tells the story of retail through the objects that shaped it, from the cave to the connected store, organised across the historical periods in which each innovation made its mark. As David puts it, the history of retail is the history of mankind, and of retail’s vast contribution to society. A new object appears here every Monday.

This is the fourth edition, the World Retail Hall of Fame edition. The book, and every object published so far →

History of Retail in 101 Objects – Object 9: Coin

19 October 2026
Coin · The History of Retail in 101 Objects

700 BC

In China, from around 1200 BC, the cowrie shell was used as an item of exchange – ‘shell money’. Archaeologists’ finds suggest that from 1000 BC the Chinese began to produce mock cowrie shells made of metal.

However, evidence indicates that metal coins also appeared independently of each other and these Chinese versions, at two other locations on the Eurasian continent – Lydia (now Turkey) and India between 700-600 BC. It is thought that increased trade between these locations was a trigger for the creation of coins to replace the barter system.

Bartering had two distinct disadvantages – the person wishing to ‘buy’ may not have anything the ‘seller’ wished to acquire, and even if they could agree on a trade, the haggling process was time consuming. Coins offered a solution in that they represented fixed values and could be exchanged not for their intrinsic value, but in order to change hands again in payment for some other goods.

An appreciation of the value of metals such as gold and silver had already developed. Since these metals were durable, portable and demand for them remained constant, they were a natural choice for use as a common currency. The value of a coin depended upon its weight and metal content.

The idea of using coins quickly spread to Greece, and because the early Greeks were keen traders throughout the Mediterranean, coinage spread around the region. Alexander the Great minted vast quantities of silver coins, using them to pay his armies and keep them loyal. It is believed that this significantly contributed to his ability to expand across three continents.

Contribution to Retail History

Whether Greek, Roman or Islamic, gold or silver, hammered or milled, coins represented an inherent value that fostered trade among local tribes as well as nations. Throughout ancient and modern civilizations, coins not only represented a certain trusted value, but also a message of culture and symbolism as various images, rulers and leaders were engraved on them.

See where this object sits in the sweep of retail history →

About the series. The History of Retail in 101 Objects is compiled and edited by David Roth, CEO of The Store WPP and Chairman of WPP BAV. It tells the story of retail through the objects that shaped it, from the cave to the connected store, organised across the historical periods in which each innovation made its mark. As David puts it, the history of retail is the history of mankind, and of retail’s vast contribution to society. A new object appears here every Monday.

This is the fourth edition, the World Retail Hall of Fame edition. The book, and every object published so far →

History of Retail in 101 Objects – Object 8: Paper Money

12 October 2026
Paper Money · The History of Retail in 101 Objects

1000 BC

Paper currency, which was first developed by the Chinese during the Tang Dynasty in the 7th century, marked the beginning of simplifying the payment process and making it easier, less cumbersome, and far more dependable. Produced primarily from cotton, paper money also contributed to the expansion of trade among regions and territories. With 180 recognized currencies worldwide today, paper money has recently given way to electronic transactions and the future will be greatly influenced by various digital crypto currencies.

In the 13th century, when Genghis Khan conquered China, he quickly grasped the potential of its paper money and began using it as a currency throughout his empire. He seized people's existing supplies of gold and silver and gave them paper currency in exchange, leaving the population no option but to trade with paper money.

Although the use of paper money spread and continued for several hundred years, it was not wholeheartedly embraced. In Persia, its introduction in 1294 led to a complete collapse of trade. In the 15th century in China, the issuing of paper notes was mismanaged, leading to rapid depreciation of their value and causing inflation. As a consequence, the use of paper money in China ceased in 1455 and did not resume for many years.

Europe came far behind Asia and the Arab world in its adoption of paper money, primarily because Europe didn't have paper until around 1100 AD. The alleged first instance of the use of paper money in Europe was in Spain in 1438 during a Moorish invasion (a Spanish military leader paid his soldiers with paper).

Early on in the introduction of paper money, European governments took over its production and began printing 'official' paper money. These paper receipts were all given fixed values and people began leaving their heavy coins with merchants in exchange for them. The earliest known English goldsmith certificates were being used by 1633 as proof of ability to pay.

Nations and colonies developed their own paper money, leading to the variety of notes in use today. In 1816, governments established the 'gold standard', to ward against inflation. This tied the value of paper money to a specific amount of gold, held in the government treasuries. The US officially adopted the gold standard in 1900.

Today, not all notes are widely accepted and the average lifespan for a currency's circulation is only 39 years. The longest running paper currencies are the British pound, (introduced in 1694) and the US dollar (introduced in 1792).

Contribution to Retail History

The earliest paper money was used in China around 1000 BC and it was most commonly used as a letter of credit, transferred over large distances.

See where this object sits in the sweep of retail history →

About the series. The History of Retail in 101 Objects is compiled and edited by David Roth, CEO of The Store WPP and Chairman of WPP BAV. It tells the story of retail through the objects that shaped it, from the cave to the connected store, organised across the historical periods in which each innovation made its mark. As David puts it, the history of retail is the history of mankind, and of retail’s vast contribution to society. A new object appears here every Monday.

This is the fourth edition, the World Retail Hall of Fame edition. The book, and every object published so far →

History of Retail in 101 Objects – Object 7: Cowrie Shell

5 October 2026
Cowrie Shell · The History of Retail in 101 Objects

1200 BC

In the earliest civilizations the concept of ‘trading’ was well established, but there was no equivalent to money for use in such transactions.

To get your food you would ‘barter’ an item such as fish, fur, clothes, decorative items, tools or even weapons. From 9000 to 6000 BC the nearest equivalent to currency was cattle.

Archaeological evidence suggests that the first widespread form of currency was introduced around 1200 BC, through the adoption of the cowrie shell as a trading ‘token’. These shells shared many of the attributes of modern coins – being durable, portable, easily recognizable and hard to fake. As well as being counted out in payment, they could also be traded by weight.

The cowrie shell was indigenous to the Indian and Pacific Oceans, but its use as a trading token spread and it became the most commonly used means of payment across large parts of Asia, Africa, and some of the outer reaches of Europe. The significance of shell trading in China is evidenced by ancient artefacts that show simplified representations of the cowrie used as part of the characters for words with economic meaning – such as money, coin and buy.

Just as with currency exchanges today, the value of the cowrie shell could fluctuate, depending on where it was being traded. For example, in some places a few cowries would buy a cow; whereas in the Maldives (where cowrie shell collecting and trading was a big business), several hundred thousands of cowries would be required in exchange for a single gold dinar.

The Portuguese, English, French and Dutch played a significant role in promoting the cowrie as a currency for commercial transactions, including using it for trading in slaves. In Western Africa, ‘shell money’ remained legal tender right up until the mid 19th century.

Contribution to Retail History

As the first recognized ‘common currency’, the cowrie shell played a vital contribution to the development of commerce and early formal retail. Non-perishable, lightweight and robust, it opened up international trade opportunities by enabling transactions to be carried out across continents and between different cultures.

See where this object sits in the sweep of retail history →

About the series. The History of Retail in 101 Objects is compiled and edited by David Roth, CEO of The Store WPP and Chairman of WPP BAV. It tells the story of retail through the objects that shaped it, from the cave to the connected store, organised across the historical periods in which each innovation made its mark. As David puts it, the history of retail is the history of mankind, and of retail’s vast contribution to society. A new object appears here every Monday.

This is the fourth edition, the World Retail Hall of Fame edition. The book, and every object published so far →

History of Retail in 101 Objects – Object 6: Shelf

28 September 2026
Shelf · The History of Retail in 101 Objects

8000 to 2000 BC · Neolithic Shopper

The shelf is a fundamental component of the store experience and allows retailers to display products and encourage sales, impart information and deliver promotional incentives. The type and quality of materials used in the fabrication of shelves contributes to perceptions of the retailer and the products offered for sale.

Shelves were created in ancient times out of a desire to elevate and protect valuable objects, which at the time tended to be scrolls or other types of written documents.

Advancements in printing which made the publication of books possible meant libraries needed extensive shelving for storage.

The application of shelves was readily apparent to retailers who equipped stores with horizontal surfaces to store products in back rooms and display products to customers so they could easily be retrieved by clerks.

The boom years for shelves arrived with the birth of self-service shopping in department stores in the 1800s and later in supermarkets. The new approach to retail meant shoppers needed to be able to see and touch products and shelves were the solution.

Shelving materials can consist of wood, metal, glass, plastic, stone or composite materials and come in an endless array of finishes. Shelves perform the most basic of functions within a retail environment, but the combination of materials, finishes and configurations present retailers with an infinite number of options when it comes to creatively merchandising a store.

In addition to their important contribution to merchandising, shelves play an important role in supply chain management. Different categories require specific shelving solutions which can vary widely from car batteries and cans of paint to folded shirts and delicate ceramics. Shelf design must account for the unique characteristics of each, to enable effective merchandising while providing adequate holding capacity to maintain acceptable in-stock levels based on anticipated rates of sale and the retailer's replenishment capabilities.

An amazing array of shelving is evident in the retail industry today.

Contribution to Retail History

The more products a buyer sees, the more a buyer buys. And throughout history, sellers realized this basic instinct of the retail process that they in turn would sell more products. While the shelf has evolved in terms of its material, size and configurations, and technological advancements, the fundamental purpose to maximize product assortments and sales hasn't changed. Stack it, show it, sell it is still the goal of visual merchandising and the overall store experience.

See where this object sits in the sweep of retail history →

About the series. The History of Retail in 101 Objects is compiled and edited by David Roth, CEO of The Store WPP and Chairman of WPP BAV. It tells the story of retail through the objects that shaped it, from the cave to the connected store, organised across the historical periods in which each innovation made its mark. As David puts it, the history of retail is the history of mankind, and of retail’s vast contribution to society. A new object appears here every Monday.

This is the fourth edition, the World Retail Hall of Fame edition. The book, and every object published so far →

History of Retail in 101 Objects – Object 5: Market

14 September 2026
Market · The History of Retail in 101 Objects

8000 to 2000 BC · Neolithic Shopper

In China, every neighborhood has its own little vegetable and meat market, selling local produce. These Chinese markets are a focus of activity and noise, and modern Chinese supermarkets still reflect the look and feel of these original markets with stores housing 'mini' markets and stalls within them.

In Moscow, nearly 10 per cent of all retail trade takes place in markets and indeed markets continue to occupy a special place in the hearts and minds of Russian shoppers. About half of all clothes and shoes sold in Russia are bought at markets – the prices are cheaper and sometimes the goods are newer and more plentiful than in retail outlets. Although perishable goods are also offered, grocery retailing has expanded significantly to the extent that now only about 11 per cent of all food is sold at markets.

For centuries, across every part of India, weekly Haats or 'gatherings' would see vendors gathering in market places. As towns and cities grew, small retail stores began stocking more goods, and high street bazaars were formed where traders sold a range of goods, food, and perishables.

In 1869, the Mumbai Crawford Market could be said to be the first form of shopping center in India, then in 1874, the Hogg Market was opened in Calcutta. Now known as the New Market, it was designed by an East Indian Railways Architect, R.R. Bayne, and named after the municipal commissioner of Calcutta, Sir Stuart Hogg. The Hogg Market had a garden, a red brick Gothic clock tower and benches for shoppers to rest upon.

Just a few decades ago the majority of Indian shoppers still relied on street markets. But shopping traditions here are changing too. The street markets are still appreciated for their colorful displays and merchandise, but new shopping malls offering entertainment and experiences for all the family are also attracting many customers through their doors. Retailing is now the largest private industry in India and the second largest employer after agriculture.

Since ancient times and throughout the history of man, wherever roads intersected or throngs of people gathered, buyers and sellers, or peddlers, quickly created a centralized market for the exchange of goods and services. From the original souk or bazaar to flea markets to today's sophisticated urban town centers or mega malls, the market remains the center of trade and commerce, social interaction and personal satisfaction.

Contribution to Retail History

The principle of the market is as old as civilization itself. Markets and market places are still to be found everywhere, and each country has its own traditions and customs.

See where this object sits in the sweep of retail history →

About the series. The History of Retail in 101 Objects is compiled and edited by David Roth, CEO of The Store WPP and Chairman of WPP BAV. It tells the story of retail through the objects that shaped it, from the cave to the connected store, organised across the historical periods in which each innovation made its mark. As David puts it, the history of retail is the history of mankind, and of retail’s vast contribution to society. A new object appears here every Monday.

This is the fourth edition, the World Retail Hall of Fame edition. The book, and every object published so far →

History of Retail in 101 Objects – Object 4: Cuneiform Tablet

7 September 2026
Cuneiform Tablet · The History of Retail in 101 Objects

8000 to 2000 BC · Neolithic Shopper

Civilization's need to write things down, make a list, keep a record, categorize data and thereby pay taxes, goes back to the earliest times. The first system of writing used to record this information (that is known to us) is called 'Cuneiform script'.

Cuneiform used pictorial symbols set out in columns on clay tablets, using a blunt reed for a stylus. The blunt reeds left a 'wedge shaped' impression, and this is where the name cuneiform comes from, the Latin for 'wedge'.

This writing system began in Sumer, in Mesopotamia, as long ago as 3300 BC. The early tablets were in their simplest form principally used for record keeping – agrarian inventories for grain, animals and equipment.

But as the ancient world increasingly urbanized, these writings took on a more commercial form and were employed to record bargains sealed, ships' cargoes, and lists of manufactured goods.

Early Sumerians used cuneiform to list the clay tokens they used to exchange and store their agricultural and manufactured goods. The clay tokens were put in clay containers and then impressed onto the sealed containers, one picture for each token inside the container. As time passed, it became a standard practice for the major cities to date documents by year, names, and their respective kings. It also became a way of calculating how much people should pay in taxes.

These early writings in turn led to their use for everyday purposes, not least in shopping. Dr Irvine Finkel, of the British Museum and noted Cuneiform scholar, has established that some of the earliest tablets he has examined are shopping lists!

Contribution to Retail History

Cuneiform tablets highlight our shopping journey from the ancient world to modern times. The shopping bag and the shopping list have survived the journey of time and civilizations. Both have been in use for millennia and whilst we have little evidence of an ancient bag, it is interesting to see from the many clay tablets that have survived, that the ancients wrote out their lists just as we do today.

See where this object sits in the sweep of retail history →

About the series. The History of Retail in 101 Objects is compiled and edited by David Roth, CEO of The Store WPP and Chairman of WPP BAV. It tells the story of retail through the objects that shaped it, from the cave to the connected store, organised across the historical periods in which each innovation made its mark. As David puts it, the history of retail is the history of mankind, and of retail’s vast contribution to society. A new object appears here every Monday.

This is the fourth edition, the World Retail Hall of Fame edition. The book, and every object published so far →

History of Retail in 101 Objects – Object 3: Balance Scales

31 August 2026
Balance Scales - The History of Retail in 101 Objects

8000 to 2000 BC · Neolithic Shopper

Balance scales were in use in Mesopotamia as early as around the year 4000 BC. They were probably derived from the principles of a yoke, whereby two equal weights would balance if suspended either side of a central beam.

Early balance scales measured relative weight (as opposed to actual weight). Measures were calculated by putting the object measured on one plate, and stones (the counterweight) on the other, until equilibrium was reached.

In around 1770, a way to measure absolute weight was developed by Richard Salter when he invented the spring scale. This calculated the weight of an item by measuring the pressure it registered when hung by a hook attached to the spring.

In 1897, one of the first commercial price-indicating scales was being developed in America. A weighed cursor, graduated vertically into prices per pound, was slid along a steelyard, which is a device with a short arm taking the item to be weighed, and a long graduated arm along which a weight is moved until it balances. The price of the goods could be read off the chart at the point where balance was achieved. Slow to actually provide a reading, it failed to catch on.

From the 1940s, scales were incorporating electronic devices to make them more accurate. Today, the traditional balance scales so associated with grocers, butchers, confectioners and a myriad of other retailers, have been replaced almost entirely by digital scales. These scales not only weigh to a tenth of a gram, but by communicating with the retailer's pricing system also print labels, instantly giving the weight and associated price of each weighed purchase. Scales are also integrated into supermarket checkouts, greatly streamlining the process.

Contribution to Retail History

Scales are one of civilizations most important developments. For centuries, traders have bought and sold goods according to weight and today all trade depends on having a fair system of weights and measures controlled by law. The food we eat and many of the products we use will have been weighed and measured – probably many times – in their journey through the supply chain. Without the ability to measure weight and ascribe a value to it, commerce would not have progressed beyond the basic bartering system. Thus, the scales became the principal way of determining the cost of an item, and a cornerstone of retailing as we know it.

See where this object sits in the sweep of retail history →

About the series. The History of Retail in 101 Objects is compiled and edited by David Roth, CEO of The Store WPP and Chairman of WPP BAV. It tells the story of retail through the objects that shaped it, from the cave to the connected store, organised across the historical periods in which each innovation made its mark. As David puts it, the history of retail is the history of mankind, and of retail’s vast contribution to society. A new object appears here every Monday.

This is the fourth edition, the World Retail Hall of Fame edition. The book, and every object published so far →